Today let's analyze the global and local picture on the ICP chart. ICP broke the global trend line. It is worth highlighting the big volume at the bottom of the chart. This is a good signal. In case the resistance is overcome, the price is likely to head towards the Prize broke falling wedge successfully. Web 3. Best coin for SIP Strategy. Key Point- 1. Apply SIP, its gives extreme high return compared to other project In both places, nurses can monitor heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, and the oxygen level in the blood.
Any abnormalities in these measurements are immediately corrected to prevent further damage to the brain. Oxygen is often given immediately, and a tube is inserted into a vein intravenous line so that drugs or sugar glucose can be given quickly.
If people have a very high or low body temperature, measures are taken to cool heatstroke treatment Treatment Heatstroke is a life-threatening condition that results in very high body temperature and malfunction of many organ systems.
See also Overview of Heat Disorders. Heatstroke can develop after Hypothermia is often regarded as a cold injury, because it can be caused or made worse by exposure to cold surroundings. Being in an environment Any other disorders such as heart or lung disorders , if present, are treated. If doctors suspect that the pressure within the skull is increased, a breathing tube is inserted through the mouth so that mechanical ventilation Mechanical Ventilation Mechanical ventilation is use of a machine to aid the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
Some people with respiratory failure need a mechanical ventilator a machine that helps air get Most people with brain herniation need a mechanical ventilator to breathe for them. Mechanical ventilation is also used to quickly decrease the increased pressure within the skull. The breathing tube is inserted through the nose or mouth and into the windpipe trachea —called endotracheal intubation. It prevents people from inhaling stomach contents after vomiting.
The tube is then attached to a mechanical ventilator. If pressure within the skull intracranial pressure is increased, the following measures may be taken to lower it:. Mechanical ventilation is used to make people breathe faster called hyperventilation. Breathing faster removes carbon dioxide from the lungs and reduces the level of carbon dioxide in the blood.
As a result, blood vessels in the undamaged part of the brain narrow, and less blood reaches the brain. This measure quickly but temporarily lowers pressure within the skull and temporarily stops herniation.
The beneficial effect of hyperventilation lasts about 30 minutes. Doctors use this time to start treatments that can stop herniation, such as drugs and surgical procedures, which take more time.
Diuretics or other drugs may be used to reduce fluids in the brain and rest of the body. Diuretics help eliminate excess fluid by causing the kidneys to excrete more sodium and water into urine. A sedative may be given to control excess involuntary muscle contractions or agitation caused by mechanical ventilation. These problems can increase pressure within the skull. Sometimes doctors insert a drain shunt in the ventricles of the brain to drain cerebrospinal fluid.
Removing excess fluid can help lower pressure within the skull. If pressure is increased because of a brain tumor or abscess, corticosteroids, such as dexamethasone , may help reduce pressure.
However, corticosteroids are not used when increased pressure is caused by certain other disorders, such as bleeding within the brain or a stroke, because corticosteroids may make these conditions worse. When pressure within the skull is increased after a head injury or cardiac arrest, measures to lower body temperature may be tried. So you ask your Indonesian friend to speak for you. Although functionalist approaches draw on practical experience of the trans- lation profession, they are not just descriptive; they do not merely describe what can be observed in the process of translation or the results of this process.
As we will see later on, functionalism makes use of descriptive methods for example, parallel text analysis to locate and compare the com- municative norms and conventions valid in various culture communities. What concepts should your Indone- sian translator use to defend her decision? This short introduction into the functionalist view of translation has already touched on the main aspects to be presented in the book.
After a brief historical overview of how Skopostheorie and the general function- oriented concepts came into being chapter 1 we will look at the main ideas of functionalist approaches. The agents and conditions of translational action will be explained and defined chapter 2. Then we will look at how the approach is applied in the training of pro- fessional translators, dealing with text functions, a functional typology of translations, norms and conventions in functional translation, a categorization of translation problems, functional translation units and some aspects of evaluation chapter 4.
Since some critics claim this model is not suited to the translation of literary texts, a further chapter will look more closely at functionalism in literary translation chapter 5. Although some critical reactions to functionalism will be mentioned as we look at the main ideas, the main criticisms will be bundled together and discussed systematically in chapter 7. Being involved in functional transla- tion teaching myself, my own attitude toward this approach will probably show through, despite all attempts at objectivity.
So as not to hide anything, my personal version of functionalism will be presented quite briefly chap- ter 8 before dealing with the current trends and future perspectives in func- tionalist theory chapter 9.
The book concludes with a list of references including a commented bib- liography of the main functionalist texts. Historical Overview The following pages describe the development of modern functionalism in translation studies.
The basic concepts of trans- lational action and Skopostheorie will be analyzed in detail later on; this chapter is merely designed to give a chronological overview of authors and works. Early Views Functional approaches to translation were not invented in the twentieth century. Throughout history we find translators — mainly litera ry or Bible translators — observing that different situations call for diff erent renderings.
Cicero B. De optimo genere oratorum v. In a similar vein, Eugene A. The relative adequacy of different tran slations of the same text can only be determined in terms of the extent to which each translation successfully fulfills the purpose for which it was in- tended.
In other words, the relative validity of each translation is seen in the degree to which the receptors are able to respond to its message in terms of both form and content in comparison with 1 what the original author evidently intended would be the response of the origi- nal audience and 2 how that audience did, in fact, respond.
The responses can, of course, never be identical, for interlingual commu- nication always implies some differences in cultural setting, with accompanying diversities in value systems, conceptual presupposi- tions, and historical antecedents. However, when trying to apply it to translation in general, he suggests a three-stage model of the translation process. In this model, source-text surface elements grammar, meaning, connotations are analyzed as linguistic kernel or near-kernel structures that can be transferred to the target language and restructured to form target- language surface elements cf.
Nida , also Nida and Taber f. But we will come to this in due course. Linguistics was per- haps the dominant humanistic discipline of the s and s. Early experiments with machine translation had to draw on contrastive represen- tations of languages. If the originals have some significance, we generally require that their images also have the same significance, or, more realistically, as nearly the same sig- nificance as we can get. Keeping significance invariant is the central problem in translating between natural languages.
Translation had previously been regarded as an art or a craft; now translation scholars were happy to have their activity recognized as a sci- ence and admitted to the inner circle of scholarly pursuits as a branch of applied linguistics.
Catford Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the clos- est natural equivalent of the source-language message. Nida and Taber These linguistic approaches basically saw translating as a code-switching operation.
With the more pragmatic reorientation at the beginning of the s, the focus shifted from the word or phrase to the text as a unit of translation, but the fundamental linguistic trend was not broken. Equiva- lence as a basic concept or even constituent of translation was never really questioned. For Wilss, for example, Translation leads from a source-language text to a target-language text which is as close an equivalent as possible and presupposes an understanding of the content and style of the original.
Wilss Equivalence-based linguistic approaches focused on the source text, the fea- tures of which had to be preserved in the target text. For Werner Koller, there exists equivalence between a given source text and a given tar- get text if the target text fulfils certain requirements with respect to these frame conditions. The relevant conditions are those having to do with such aspects as content, style and function.
The requirement of equivalence thus has the following form: quality or qualities X in the SL text must be preserved. This means that the source-language content, form, style, function, etc. Many theorists still adhere to this view, although some have had to recognize that there may be cases of non-equivalence in translation caused by the pragmatic differences between source and target cultures.
What has happened to it then? These rather arbitrary criteria do not account for the fact that implicit values should remain implicit in some cases, nor do they recognize that comprehensibility is not a general purpose common to all texts or text- types. The theorists of equivalence tend to accept non-literal translation proce- dures more readily in the translation of pragmatic texts instructions for use, advertisements than in literary translation.
Different or even contra- dictory standards for the selection of transfer procedures are thus set up for different genres or text-types. This makes the equivalence approach rather confusing.
Summing up the theorizing of translation over the centuries, Kelly states: A translator moulds his image of translation by the function he as- signs to language; from function, one extrapolates to nature. Thus those who translate merely for objective information have defined translation differently from those for whom the source text has a life of its own. Quite simply, they started to look at the profession for which they were training. They found that professional translating includes many cases where equivalence is not called for at all.
In the translation of a British school certificate for a German university, for example, the target text is not expected to look like, or function as, a German school certificate. In this situation, some scholars became increasingly dissatisfied with the relationship between translation theory and practice.
A new theory was called for. Taking equivalence as her basis, Reiss develops a model of translation criticism based on the functional relationship between source and target texts. She knew that real life presents situations where equivalence is not possible and, in some cases, not even desired. Her objec- tive approach to translation criticism cf.
Nord b thus accounts for certain exceptions from the equivalence requirement. One exception is when the target text is in- tended to achieve a purpose or function other than that of the original. A further exception is when the target text addresses an audience different from the intended readership of the original.
In such situations the functional perspective takes precedence over the normal stand- ards of equivalence. The translation critic can no longer rely on features derived from source-text analysis but has to judge whether the target text is functional in terms of the translation context. An interlinear version can be extremely useful in comparative linguistic research.
Grammar trans- lation is a good aid to foreign language learning. Learned translation is appropriate if one wishes to focus on the different means whereby given meanings are verbally expressed in different languages.
However, when the translation is an end in itself, in the sense of simply seeking to extend an originally monolingual communicative process to include receivers in another language, then it must be conceived as an integral communicative performance, which without any extratextual additions notes, explanations etc. Since functional equivalence is no longer regarded as the normal aim of translation, the analysis of text types can no longer provide the decisive criteria for methodological choices.
The classification of the source text as belonging to a particular text-type is thus relevant only in special cases where the intended function of the target text is to represent a textual equiva- lent of the source text. Hans J. Vermeer: Skopostheorie and Beyond Hans J.
Vermeer has gone much further in trying to bridge the gap between theory and practice. Having been trained as an interpreter by Katharina Reiss! First, because translating is not merely and not even primarily a linguistic process. Secondly, because lin- guistics has not yet formulated the right questions to tackle our problems. Transla- tion is thus also a type of human action. In accordance with action theory cf. Further, since situations are embedded in cultures, any evaluation of a particular situation, of its verbalized and non-verbalized elements, depends on the status it has in a particular culture system.
This is made clear in an illustration given by Vermeer himself: Suppose we were to observe an Indian getting up in the morning. We see him get out of bed, take a shower, brush his teeth and cleanse his mouth, put on clean clothes, pray, take a cup of tea and so on.
Suppose now, we would also observe a German during his morning ritual. We would see much the same procedure, although with certain differences in the way he would take his shower and put on his clothes; he, too, would have his breakfast and perhaps brush his teeth afterwards. Within the framework of such a comprehensive theory of human communication, a translation theory cannot draw on a linguistic theory alone, however complex it may be. What is needed is a theory of culture to explain the specificity of communicative situations and the rela- tionship between verbalized and non-verbalized situational elements.
Other forms of translational action may involve actions like a consultant giving information. Any action has an aim, a purpose. Vermeer bf This is why Vermeer calls his theory Skopostheorie, a theory of purposeful action.
In the framework of this theory, one of the most important factors determining the purpose of a translation is the addressee, who is the in- tended receiver or audience of the target text with their culture-specific world-knowledge, their expectations and their communicative needs.
Note that the phrase we have just cited from Vermeer makes no mention of the source text. The status of the source is clearly much lower in Skopostheorie than in equivalence-based theories. Ver meer Skopostheorie was developed as the foundation for a general theory of translation able to embrace theories dealing with specific languages and cultures. We shall look at the main concepts of Skopostheorie in greater detail later on. In the meantime our task is to consider a few of the other major contributions to the development of functionalist theory.
This enables her to move away from the traditional concepts and expectations connected with the word. The purpose of translational action is to transfer messages across culture and language barriers by means of message transmitters produced by ex- perts. One of her prime concerns is the status of translators in a world characterized by the division of labour. Her con- cepts of vocational training emphasize the role of translators as experts in their field. We will deal with these aspects in greater detail in the next chap- ter.
The abil- ity to produce or design functional message transmitters is determined by brain functions, which have to be taken into account in the training of expert text designers ff.
Since this approach can be seen as belonging to the area of cognitive and psycholinguistic translation studies, it will not be included in our study. Functionalist Methodology in Translator Training Right from the outset, Skopostheorie and the theory of translational action have had a considerable impact on the methodology of translator training. Hans G. Basing their method on action-oriented and culture-oriented communication theory, they show how functional strate- gies lead to appropriate solutions to translation problems.
Although their examples are taken from German-English translating, the problems they discuss are clearly not language-specific but may occur, with slight varia- tions due to language structures and culture conventions, in any translation situation. A feature common to the functionalist scholars engaged in translator training is that, unlike the linguistic theorists, they try to focus on the language-independent pragmatic or cultural aspects of translation, emphasizing the specific nature of translation competence as against language proficiency.
My model includes the analysis of extratextual and intratextual aspects of the communicative action; it is designed to identify the function-relevant elements in both the existing source text and the prospective target text as defined by the translation brief. By comparing the Skopos with the source-text functions before starting to translate, translators should be able to locate the problems that will arise in the translating process. They should thus be able to devise a holistic strategy for their solution cf.
Nord a. Other translation scholars who draw on functionalism will be mentioned in the course of the following chapters. The family is sitting at the breakfast table. A young Portuguese girl wants to apply for a job in Germany and asks Mr T, a professional translator, to render her school reports into German for the prospective employer. Exam ple adapted from Vermeer a C.
Now, Mister Kao, will you please be so kind. Ms Jones is a professional translator living in Spain. Her native lan- guage is English, but before coming to Spain she lived in Singapore for many years. He has drafted the letter in Spanish.
Could Mrs Jones translate it into Eng- lish? Or would it be better to write in Chinese? They agree on deadline, payment and so on. Example adapted from Vermeer a E.
Each of these examples describes a situation where two or more people cannot communicate directly because of language barriers. Communication is established with the help of an intermediary.
In the following sections we will take a closer look at these forms of communication across language and culture barriers, at the agents involved in intercultural communication, and at the situations in which intercultural communication takes place. Translating as a Form of Translational Interaction Communicative situations are settings in which people interact. Communi- cation is thus interpersonal interaction and, as such, a variety of action.
This is why action theory may be able to explain certain aspects of transla- tion cf. If general- ized to cases where there are two or more agents, the theory of action can become a theory of interaction. Human interaction may be described as an intentional change of a state of affairs affecting two or more people or agents. Communicative interactions take place in situations that are limited in time and space. When senders and receivers belong to different cultures, the situations can be so different that they need an intermediary who enables them to communicate across time and space.
Translators enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities. They bridge the gap between situations where differences in verbal and non-verbal behaviour, expectations, knowledge and perspectives are such that there is not enough common ground for the sender and receiver to communicate effectively by themselves.
When she gives this advice she is acting as a translator, even though she is not translating any text. Translating in the narrower sense always involves the use of some kind of source text, whereas translational action may involve giving advice and perhaps even warning against communicating in the intended way.
He is asked to translate them into Ger- man. Instead of translating the faulty source text, the translator asks an engineer to tell him how the machine works and he then writes operating instructions in German. Nord [] Bringing together these very rudimentary considerations, Figure 1 shows the relations between the concepts of action, interaction, translational ac- tion and translation.
This network of concepts should explain the most important features of translation as interaction. Translation as a Form of Mediated Intercultural Communication We see that this approach essentially involves viewing translation as an intentional, interpersonal, partly verbal intercultural interaction based on a source text cf. Vermeer b In the following sections we will look a little more closely at these defining features. Vermeer a Vermeer defines the concept of action as follows: For an act of behaviour to be called an action the person performing it must potentially be able to explain why he acts as he does although he could have acted otherwise.
This is virtually the same as what Watzlawick says about behaviour: There is no negation of behaving. To put it even more simply, it is impossible not to behave one way or another.
Whether you do some- thing or refrain from doing it, whether you speak or keep silent, your behaviour will tell others something, influence them, communicate; others cannot help but react to your behaviour and will thus commu- nicate in turn. Watzlawick et al. There may be further intentions of a more strictly communicative nature, such as to inform the target addressees about something the source-text sender has to say. T ranslational intention may or may not be similar to the intention guiding the original sender or text producer in the production of the source text.
Of course, as Ammann points out c , such interpretations may be quite differ- ent from what was actually meant by the person carrying out the action.
Translating as Interpersonal Interaction The people or agents involved in the interaction have certain functions or roles.
In order to understand this functional network we must analyze the roles in a little more detail. We shall start from a schematic representa- tion of the translation process. In the professional practice of intercultural communication, translators rarely start working of their own accord. They are usually called upon to do so by a client. The process of translating in the narrower sense thus involves the main agents or roles of initiator and translator.
The source-text producer only participates indirectly, being responsible for no more than the features of the source text. The re- ceivers of both the source and the target texts, in their roles as addressees, are relevant for specification of the respective purposes of the two texts.
Further roles could be included in this model. We will now look at all these roles in greater detail. The Roles of Initiator and Commissioner The initiator is the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed cf.
Nord [] Example: A Portuguese student wants to study at a German university. German law requires school reports to be presented in German. The Ger- man legislative power is therefore the institutional initiator of the translation process. The commissioner may influence the very production of the target text, perhaps by demanding a particular text format or terminology.
The role of initiator may be taken on by any one of the agents in transla- tional interaction. The source-text author, the prospective target-text receiver or the commissioner may all want to have the source text translated, for different reasons and for different purposes. The translator is ostensibly the expert in translational action and should be responsible both for carrying out the commissioned task and for ensuring the result of the translation process, even when aspects like formatting and layout are assigned to other agents cf.
After agreeing with the commissioner on the conditions involved, the translator produces a target text that they regard as functional in the sense that it meets the de- mands of the translation brief cf. The Role of Source-Text Producer The source-text producer has produced the text that is to serve as the source for a translational action. The production of the source text may have been motivated by the need for a text in a particular translation process or by other factors that have nothing to do with translation.
In the latter case, the source-text producer is not an immediate agent in the translational action. Nord [] f , working in the field of written communication, makes a distinction between the sender and the text producer. The definition of the target-text receiver should be part of the translation brief, as will be explained shortly. We may make a distinction between addressee and receiver. As is pointed out in Reiss and Vermeer , information about the target-text addressee with regard to sociocultural background, expecta- tions, sensitivity or world knowledge is of crucial importance for the translator, who should insist on receiving as many details as possible from the commissioner similarly Nord [] It is important to note that different agent roles may be fulfilled by the one person, as is shown in the following examples: Example: A translator has translated a novel written by a foreign author and asks a publisher to include it in the publication list.
In this case the translator is the initiator, the commissioner and the translator in one person. The professor writes a German draft of the lecture; a translator translates it into English; the professor reads it at the conference. In this case, the professor is source- text producer, initiator and target-text user all in one person. The meaning associated with the sign need not be the same for both the producer and the receiver cf. Vermeer af. Any form of behaviour perhaps a smile or brief silence may be intended to have meaning X by the producer and interpreted as having meaning Y by the receiver.
Even an accidental state of affairs can be inter- preted as a meaningful sign, just as a sign intended to be meaningful may go unnoticed by the addressee. The use of signs is teleological in the sense that it aims at a particular goal. In order to obtain the intended goal, the producer and the receiver must have some kind of agreement about the meaning of the sign. Signs are con- ventional and thus culture-specific. The example shows that we tend to interpret signs according to our own norms of behaviour.
In translation, the translator produces signs for the target audience. The workshop will further serve to evaluate what the early career communities have achieved in recent years, how they can enhance their interaction, and foster collaborations with other early career networks. The workshop received many applications and around 40 participants from 23 different countries were selected.
The selection criteria accounted for gender, geography, scientific background, and merit.
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